Government sponsorship

The Muslim government heavily patronized scholars. The money spent on the translation Movement for some translations is estimated to be equivalent to about twice the annual research budget of the United kingdom's medical Research Council.[25]The best scholars and notable translators, such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq, had salaries that are estimated to be the equivalent of professional athletes today.[25]The House of Wisdom was a library,translation institute, and academy established in Abbasid-era Baghdad,Iraq by Caliph Harun al-Rashid and his son al-Ma'mun.[

New technology

With a new and easier writing system, and the introduction of paper, information was democratized to the extent that, for probably the first time in history, it became possible to make a living from simply writing and selling books.[28]The use of paper spread from China into Muslim regions in the eighth century, arriving in Al-Andaluson the Iberian peninsula, present-day Spain in the 10th century. It was easier to manufacture than parchment, less likely to crack than papyrus, and could absorb ink, making it difficult to erase and ideal for keeping records. Islamic paper makers devised assembly-line methods of hand-copying manuscripts to turn out editions far larger than any availablein Europe for centuries.[29]It was from these countries that the rest of the world learned to make paper from linen

Philosophy

Rushdand Ibn Sina played a major role in saving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. Islamic scholars would also absorb ideas from China and India, adding to the tremendous knowledge from their own studies.[citation needed]Ibn Sina and other philosophers such asal-Kindiandal-Farabi combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonismbwith other ideas introduced through Islam.[citation needed]Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Latin and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. During this period, non-Muslims were allowed to flourish relative to treatment of religious minorities in the Christian byzantine Empire. The Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, who lived in Andalusia, is an example.

Avicenna argued his "Floating Man" thought experiment concerning self-awareness, in which a man prevented of sense experience by being blindfolded and free falling would still be aware of his existence.[31]In epistemology,Ibn Tufail wrote the novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhanand in response Ibn al-Nafis wrote the novel Theologus Autodidactus. Both were concerning autodidacticism as illuminated through the life of a feral child spontaneously generated in a cave on a desert island.

Algebra

Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmīplayed asignificant role in the development ofalgebra,algorithms, andHindu-Arabic numerals.

Geometry
Islamic art makes use of geometric patterns and symmetries in many of its art forms, notably in girih tilings. These are formed using a set of five tile shapes, namely a regular decagon, an elongated hexagon, a bow tie, arhombus, and a regular pentagon. All the sides of these tiles have the same length; and all their angles are multiples of 36° (π/5radians), offering fivefold and tenfold symmetries. The tiles are decorated with strap work lines (girih), generally more visible than the tile boundaries. In 2007, the physicists Peter Lu and Paul Stein hard targued that girih from the 15th century resembled quasi crystalline Penrose tilings.Elaborate geometric zelligetile work is a distinctive element in Moroccan architecture.[36]Muqarnas vaults are three-dimensional but were designed in two dimensions with drawings of geometrical cells.

Trigonometry

Muʿādh al-Jayyānīis one of several Islamic mathematicians to whom the law of sinesis attributed; he wrote hisThe Book of Unknown Arcs of a Spherein the 11th century. This formula relates the lengths of the sides of any triangle, rather than onlyright triangles, to the sines of its angles.[38]According to the law,wherea,b, andcare the lengths of the sidesof a triangle, andA,B, and care the opposite angles

according to the law,where a,b, and care the lengths of the sides of a triangle, and A,B, and care the opposite angles.

Calculus

Alhazen discovered the sum formula for the fourth power, using a method that could be generally used to determine the sum for any integral power. He used this to find the volume of a paraboloid. He could find the integral formula for any polynomial without having developed a general formula.

Scientific method

Ibn Al-Haytham(Alhazen) was a significant figure in the history of scientific method, particularly in his approach to experimentation,and has been described as the "WORLD'S FIRST TRUE SCIentist".

The physician Rhazes was an early proponent of experimental medicine and recommended using control for clinical research. He said: "If you want to study the effect of bloodletting on a condition, divide the patients into two groups, perform bloodletting only on one group, watch both, and compare the results."

im Al-Khalili gives the example of the classification of materials as a sign of new ways of thinking.[46]While the classification of the material world by the ancient Indian is and Greeks into Air, Earth, Fire and Water was more philosophical, medieval Islamic scientists used practical, experimental observation to classify materials.[46]Rhazes, for example, classified minerals into six groups based on their observed chemical properties: Spirits, which were flammable, Material Bodies, which were shiny and malleable,Salts, which could dissolve in water,Vitriols, Stones,and Boraxes.

Astronomy

In about 964 AD, the Persian astronomerAbd al-Rahman al-Sufi, writing in hisBook of Fixed Stars, described a "nebulous spot" in the Andromeda constellation, the first definitive reference to what we now know is the Andromeda Galaxy, the nearest spiral galaxyto our galaxy

asir al-Din al-Tusi invented a geometrical technique called aTusi-couple, which generates linear motion from the sum of two circular motions to replace Ptolemy's problematic equant[48]The Tusi couple was later employed in Ibn al-Shatir's geocentric model and Nicolaus Copernicus 'heliocentric Copernican model[49]although it is not known who the intermediary is or if Copernicus rediscovered the technique independently.

Anatomy
In the cardiovascular system,Ibn al-Nafisin his commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon was the first to contradict the contention of the Galen school that blood could pass between the ventricles in the heart through the cardiac inter-ventricular septum that separates them, saying that there is no passage between the ventricles at this point.[51]Instead, he correctly argued that all the blood that reached the left ventricle did so after passing through the lung.[51]He also stated that there must be small communications, or pores, between the pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein, a prediction that preceded the discovery of the pulmonary capillaries of Marcello Malpighi by 400 years. The Commentary was rediscovered in the 20th century in the Prussian State Library in Berlin; whether its view of the pulmonary circulation influenced scientists such as Michael Servetus is unclear, as it was not published and only five copies were made.

In the nervous system, Rhazes stated thatnerveshadmotororsensoryfunctions, describing 7cranialand 31spinal cord nerves. He assigned a numerical order to the cranial nerves from theopticto thehypoglossal nerves. He classified the spinal nerves into 8cervical, 12thoracic, 5lumbar, 3sacral, and 3 coccygeal nerves. He used this to link clinical signs of injury to the corresponding location of lesions in the nervous system.